The Political Activities and Campaigning by Charities (2004) states a charitable may engage in political activity where to do so will enhance or facilitate or support its work.. [52] This also excludes benefit societies where the benefits are limited to those who have funded it, as in Re Holborn Air Raid Distress Fund. and Paula J. Thomas, B.A., LL.B. IRC v Pemsel Charitable purposes fall into only four categories: relief of poverty, advancement of education, advancement of religion, other purposes beneficial to the community. The defendants (H) were the owners of a hotel. Court approval was . The AG argued that the effects . Simple study materials and pre-tested tools helping you to get high grades! [30] This category also covers groups with small followings, as in Re Watson,[31] and with doubtful theology, as in Thornton v Howe. Peggs v Lamb [1994] 2 WLR 1. The High Court possesses all the powers of the Commission, who only exercise theirs on application of the charity or Attorney General, or trustees, beneficiaries and interested people when the charity has an income of less than 500. The Crown replied that a mandatory order was not available against the Scottish Ministers. Looking for a flexible role? [10], Trusts must also be for "public benefit", which was considered at length in Oppenheim v Tobacco Securities Trust. Providing information relating to its functions or objectives including maintenance of an up-to-date register. IRC v McMullen [1981] AC 1 at 15 (Lord Hailsham). The first is that, even when a campaign for political change is stated to be for the benefit of the community, it is not within the court's competence to decide whether or not the change would be beneficial. The guiding principles in such cases are as follows: where connecting word is or this is construed disjunctively which means the trust is not to be regarded as exclusively charitable e.g. Here drawings . A body for specific artistic purposes may be charitable, as in Royal Choral Society v IRC,[24] as is the promotion of a particular composer, seen in Re Delius. The second approach is a requirement that there is no personal nexus between the settler and the class of people to be benefited, but that there has to be sufficient public benefit e.g. The House defined what is meant at law by a charity. viz., that they were for the relief of poverty. Under the Charities Act 2006 Section 2, thirteen heads of charitable purposes are listed. Lord McNaghten. This means that the purpose of the trust needs to meet two requirements. A charitable organization or charity is an organization whose primary objectives are philanthropy and social well-being (e.g. This includes famous composers, as seen above, and social graces, as in Re Shaw's Wills Trust. "Education" also includes research, as long as the subject is useful and the gift makes some requirement that the information be made available to others and disseminated. [59], The administration of charitable trusts is covered primarily by the Charities Act 1993 and the Charities Act 2006, and is widely divided between four groups; the Attorney General for England and Wales, the trustees, the Charity Commission and the Official Custodian for Charities.[60]. In addition, it is considered unacceptable for charitable trusts to campaign for political or legal change, although discussing political issues in a neutral manner is acceptable. The definitions of a trustee and a trust within charitable trusts differ significantly from the norm. Scottish Burial Reform and Cremation Society v Glasgow City Corporation, 38 'the law of charity is a moving subject which evolves over time'. Blair v Duncan (1902), AG v National Provincial Bank (1924) etc where the word and is used, this is ordinarily construed conjunctively so that the word of wider import is drawn into the ambit of charitable e.g. Currently governed by and exercising its functions under the Charities Act 2011, it has five core objectives: Along with these objectives, it has six functions under the 2011 Act: The Charity Commission has the power to issue an inquiry into a charity under Section 46 of the 2011 act and, if they are satisfied there has been mismanagement, they are allowed to suspend trustees or officers, appoint additional trustees, vest charity property in the Official Custodian for Charities or order debtors or people holding charity property not to transfer it without their permission. N.B. )Hence Lauras gift should have no problems. They are free from the income tax paid by individuals and companies, and also the corporation tax paid by incorporated and unincorporated associations. This appears to indicate that a millionaire who loses half of his income may be considered "poor", in that he is unable to have the lifestyle he is accustomed to. c. Trust for the advancement of religion. 3 9. Wilberforce J held that it was a valid gift, as "the discovery would be of the highest value to history and to literature". Free resources to assist you with your legal studies! v. Pemsel.1 Pemsel's Caseis considered to be the major judicial approval of the classification of charitable purposes and charitable objects. Charitable trusts are defined in S.1(1) of the 2011 Act as a trust that is established for charitable purposes only, which is tested by the certainty of objects . Moreover, it appears that if a testator, domiciled in England, leaves property by his will to trustees abroad for charitable purposes abroad the court may . 38 Requirement that there be a net benefit for the public You must then, as in other sciences, reason by analogy, or leave at least one-half of the statute without effect. It was argued that, although the words charity and charitable had a definite legal meaning in England, they could not be applied in the same way in Scotland unless they had a definite legal meaning there too: That was not Lord Hardwickes view. Such trusts will be invalid in several circumstances; charitable trusts are not allowed to be run for profit, nor can they have purposes that are not charitable (unless these are ancillary to the charitable purpose). Trust for the advancement of education. An organisation whose aims . The definition has developed from the 1601 charitable uses act and the ruling in IRC v Pemsel (1891) Re Coulthurst (1951) IRC v Baddeley (1955) Dingle v Turner (1972) The ruling of Re Coulthurst stated that the poverty being experienced did not need to be complete destitution and Lord Evershed stated poverty is a relative term not absolute term. The common law, over the years, has recognised a wide area covered by "education". :- My Lords, in this case the Income Tax Commissioners have appealed against an order of the Court of Appeal, whereby a peremptory mandamus was awarded against them, commanding them to make [] of Income Taa: Commissioners v. Pemsel involved a trust for missionary purposes in heathen countries, the validity of which waa upheld by the House of Lords. d. Trust for other purposes beneficial to the community not falling under the previous three head.-PUBLIC BENEFIT Verge v Somerville [1924] AC . The definitions of what a charity is and its purpose are explained in the Charities Act 2006 and is subject to the control of the High court. However the head does consider a wide range of activities as said in the case of McGovern v AG 1982 contribute to the improvement of a useful branch of human knowledge and its public dissemination. The leading case of McGovern v AG (1982) sets out the principles on which a court will typically find research work to be charitable. It differentiates between activities of a charity which is aimed at securing, or opposing, any change in the law or in the policy or decisions of central government, local authorities or public bodies from an activity aimed at ensuring that an existing law is upheld i.e. [59] In 1881 he was the Accountant at the Moravian Missionary Society, [60] and by 1891 was its Manager. View examples of our professional work here. Again the charity failed as the inclusion of other objects caused the trust to fail as they were thought to be political. As such, the gift does not revert to the next of kin because even if the body is dissolved, the gift's purpose is (presumably) still valid.[78]. The advancement of education clearly covers purposes involving schools and universities but confusion arises when trusts are created for study of esoteric subjects or to advice ideological position which are not annexed to any accepted educational institution. The Charities Act 2006 states in section 1(1) that: For the purposes of the law of England and Wales, 'charity' means an institution which (a) is established for charitable purposes only, and (b) falls to be subject to the control of the High Court in the exercise of its jurisdiction with respect to charities. [28] There are two justifications for this. (MacNaghten) 1891 Charities Act 2006 Its purpose, objectives, duties and powers are contained in S7. There are two exceptions to the rule of exclusivity; ancillary purposes, and severance. He represents all the objects of the charity, who are in effect parties through him. However there is no clear line that the law draws here and thus inconsistencies have occurred. I do not question that there may be a good charity for the relief of persons who are not in grinding need or utter destitution: see In re de Carteret [1933] Ch. . Hence they have the power to recognise new purposes as charitable where they believe the courts would do so. Max-Josef Pemsel (15 January 1897 - 30 June 1985) was a Generalleutnant in the German Army during Second World War.After the war he became one of the very few senior officers from the Nazi Germany-era armed forces to serve in the West German Army.. Again the failure of the National Anti- Vivisection Society v IRC (1948) failed as the objective of the society required changes to be made in the law. With the 1960 Act (the relevant provisions of which are now included in the 1993 Act), cy-pres can be applied where the original purposes have: (a)been as far as may be fulfilled; or cannot be carried out, or not according to the directions given and to the spirit of the gift; (b) or where the original purposes provide a use for part only of the property available by virtue of the gift; (c) where the property available by virtue of the gift and other property applicable for similar purposes can be more effectively used in conjunction, and to that end can suitably, regard being had to the spirit of the gift, be made applicable to common purposes; (d) or where the original purposes were laid down by reference to an area which then was but has ceased to be a unit for some other purpose, or by reference to a class of persons or to an area which has for any reason since ceased to be suitable, regard being had to the spirit of the gift, or to be practical in administering the gift; (e) or where the original purposes, in whole or in part, have since they were laid down been adequately provided for by other means; or ceased, as being useless or harmful to the community or for other reasons, to be in law charitable; or ceased in any other way to provide a suitable and effective method of using the property available by virtue of the gift, regarding being had to the spirit of the gift. In general charitable status can be acquired if: the political activity was not the charities sole and continuing aim to change government policy, and if the purpose can be gained without a change in the law. The standard rule for dividing the funds is based on the equitable rule that "equity is equality"; money should be divided equally. Pemsel's case informed us, in an authoritative decision in 1891, that the words "charitable Athletic purposes" in a Finance Act (also applicable to Scotland) must be construed according to the legal and technical meaning given to those words by English law. The Revenue appealed against the decision by Foster J that the Council ought to be registered as a charity. The purposes (sometimes referred to as "objects") of an organization are the objectives that it is created to achieve. .Cited National Anti-Vivisection League v Inland Revenue Commissioners HL 2-Jul-1947 The main object of the Society was political viz, the repeal of the Cruelty to Animals Act 1876, and for that reason the Society was not established for charitable purposes only and was not entitled to exemption from tax. This contention was, in my opinion, rightly rejected both by Mr. Justice Harman and the Court of Appeal. Other cases such as Goodman v Saltash (1882) and Peggs v Lamb 1993 have held that trusts for people in a definite geographical area are charitable. This means that the benefit should be available to a sufficiently large section of the public without any direct connection to the settlor. Individuals who donate via Gift Aid are free from paying tax on that amount, while companies who give gifts to charity can claim tax on the amount back from HM Revenue & Customs.[6]. The Act also excludes private clubs, unless the members fall under Section 1(2)(a). These can come about when money has been left for a charitable purpose which is not specified, or with no suggestion as to how it should be administered. Some may be, and . Given that judges contentedly take it upon themselves to interpret, limit and extend statutes (as well as occasionally recommending the creation of new statutes to shore up the common law), it is peculiar to see judges so coy in the face of an argument being advanced that legislation might be changed". [61] He claimed to be entitled to a judicial pension. As a result, the trust failed. Tel: 0795 457 9992, or email david@swarb.co.uk. We do not provide advice. The nature of charitable trusts means that the definition of "public benefit" varies between Macnaghten's four categories.[12]. Commissioners of Special Purposes of Income Tax v Pemsel Lord MacNagthen classified the recognized purposes of charitable trust into four heads: i) relief of poverty ii) advancement of education iii) advancement of religion iv) other purposes beneficial to the communities . To be a valid charitable trust, the organisation must demonstrate both a charitable purpose and a public benefit. The general principle is that political trusts are not charitable and this position has not been affected by the Charities Act 2006. The Commission, the first port of call, is tasked with regulating and promoting charitable trusts, as well as providing advice and opinions to trustees on administrative matters. The modern conception of what is meant by the terms 'charity' and 'charitable' was established in 1891 by Lord Macnaghten in Commissioner for Special Purposes of Income Tax v Pemsel ('Pemsel's case'). Wich is second test Lauras gift must pass. .Cited Lehtimaki and Others v Cooper SC 29-Jul-2020 Charitable Company- Directors Status and Duties A married couple set up a charitable foundation to assist children in developing countries. Tel: 0795 457 9992, or email david@swarb.co.uk, Mayor of Lyons v East India Co: PC 12 Dec 1836, CC255132002 (Unreported): AIT 30 Jun 2003, Reclaiming Motion In Petition of Scott Davidson for Judicial Review of A Decision To Continue To Detain the Prisoner In Inhuman and Degrading Prison C, Inland Revenue Commissioners v Glasgow Police Athletic Association, OBrien v Department for Constitutional Affairs, Helena Partnerships Ltd v HM Revenue and Customs, Incorporated Council of Law Reporting For England And Wales v Attorney-General And Others, National Anti-Vivisection League v Inland Revenue Commissioners, British Airways Plc v British Airline Pilots Association: QBD 23 Jul 2019, Wright v Troy Lucas (A Firm) and Another: QBD 15 Mar 2019, Hayes v Revenue and Customs (Income Tax Loan Interest Relief Disallowed): FTTTx 23 Jun 2020, Ashbolt and Another v Revenue and Customs and Another: Admn 18 Jun 2020, Indian Deluxe Ltd v Revenue and Customs (Income Tax/Corporation Tax : Other): FTTTx 5 Jun 2020, Productivity-Quality Systems Inc v Cybermetrics Corporation and Another: QBD 27 Sep 2019, Thitchener and Another v Vantage Capital Markets Llp: QBD 21 Jun 2019, McCarthy v Revenue and Customs (High Income Child Benefit Charge Penalty): FTTTx 8 Apr 2020, HU206722018 and HU196862018: AIT 17 Mar 2020, Parker v Chief Constable of the Hampshire Constabulary: CA 25 Jun 1999, Christofi v Barclays Bank Plc: CA 28 Jun 1999, Demite Limited v Protec Health Limited; Dayman and Gilbert: CA 24 Jun 1999, Demirkaya v Secretary of State for Home Department: CA 23 Jun 1999, Aravco Ltd and Others, Regina (on the application of) v Airport Co-Ordination Ltd: CA 23 Jun 1999, Manchester City Council v Ingram: CA 25 Jun 1999, London Underground Limited v Noel: CA 29 Jun 1999, Shanley v Mersey Docks and Harbour Company General Vargos Shipping Inc: CA 28 Jun 1999, Warsame and Warsame v London Borough of Hounslow: CA 25 Jun 1999, Millington v Secretary of State for Environment Transport and Regions v Shrewsbury and Atcham Borough Council: CA 25 Jun 1999, Chilton v Surrey County Council and Foakes (T/A R F Mechanical Services): CA 24 Jun 1999, Oliver v Calderdale Metropolitan Borough Council: CA 23 Jun 1999, Regina v Her Majestys Coroner for Northumberland ex parte Jacobs: CA 22 Jun 1999, Sheriff v Klyne Tugs (Lowestoft) Ltd: CA 24 Jun 1999, Starke and another (Executors of Brown decd) v Inland Revenue Commissioners: CA 23 May 1995, South and District Finance Plc v Barnes Etc: CA 15 May 1995, Gan Insurance Company Limited and Another v Tai Ping Insurance Company Limited: CA 28 May 1999, Thorn EMI Plc v Customs and Excise Commissioners: CA 5 Jun 1995, London Borough of Bromley v Morritt: CA 21 Jun 1999, Kuwait Oil Tanker Company Sak; Sitka Shipping Incorporated v Al Bader;Qabazard; Stafford and H Clarkson and Company Limited; Mccoy; Kuwait Petroleum Corporation and Others: CA 28 May 1999, Worby, Worby and Worby v Rosser: CA 28 May 1999, Bajwa v British Airways plc; Whitehouse v Smith; Wilson v Mid Glamorgan Council and Sheppard: CA 28 May 1999. The Council sought charitable status for its activities of reporting the law. In Dingle v Turner,[18] a charitable trust was established to help poor employees of Dingle & Co. Take a look at some weird laws from around the world! This is a matter of degrees, and was discussed by Slade J in McGovern v Attorney General,[56] when he said that: The distinction is between (a) those non-charitable activities authorised by the trust instrument which are merely incidental or subsidiary to a charitable purpose and (b) those non-charitable activities so authorised which themselves form part of the trust purpose. Oppenheim v Tobacco Securities Trust Co Ltd [1951] AC 297. If these are all carried out, the will is a valid document, and the gift made as part of it can create a charitable trust. .Cited Davidson v Scottish Ministers HL 15-Dec-2005 The complainant a prisoner sought an order that he should not be kept in conditions found to be inhumane. The courts are willing to accept charitable trusts for recreational activities if they benefit people as a whole, and not just the people covered by Section 1(2)(a), as in Guild v IRC,[46] where Lord Keith stated "the fact is that persons from all walks of life and all kinds of social circumstances may have their conditions of life improved by the provision of recreational facilities of a suitable nature". .. Held: A gift . An illustration of its strictness is Bowman v Secular Society, where it was held that even when attempted changes to the law were ancillary to the main goals, it was still unacceptable. Education can also be aesthetics education. The courts are increasingly setting out the underlying principles when deciding cases on charitable . Where the non-charitable purpose is a necessary ancillary to the charitable one, the trust will not fail. . ; Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0; additional terms may apply . In Dingle v Turner it was concluded that the public benefit requirement is problematic in such cases. Cited Inland Revenue Commissioners v Glasgow Police Athletic Association HL 9-Mar-1953 The House was asked whether the taxpayer association was established for Charitable purposes only so as to benefit from tax exemptions. As in the case of Re Bushnall (1975), where it was held that the trust was neither an educational charity or a charity under any heading as it felt that the desirability of such legislation was a political matter. IMPORTANT:This site reports and summarizes cases. swarb.co.uk is published by David Swarbrick of 10 Halifax Road, Brighouse, West Yorkshire, HD6 2AG. The issue was whether or not the National Anti-Vivisection Society was established "for charitable purposes only" for the purposes of the Income Tax Act 1918. A charity does not have to be for the benefit of people who are both poor, impotent and aged to be valid, only one of them. There are exceptions where it is not practicable, as in Re Coxon,[58] where of a 200,000 gift to the City of London for charitable purposes, a 100 dinner and other small gifts to the board of trustees was funded. Any case involving charities has him joined as a party, he may act against trustees in disputes, and take actions to recover property from third parties. If the gift is of land and made during the donor's lifetime, it must comply with Section 53(1)(b) of the Law of Property Act 1925, which requires that the agreement be a written document signed by the person giving it. Held: The appeal failed. When the marriage failed an attempt was made to establish a second foundation with funds from the first, as part of W leaving the Trust. This document goes to great lengths to try and simplify the situation. Updated: 24 August 2021; Ref: scu.220235. [65], The jurisdiction of the Charity Commission is concurrent with that of the High Court of Justice. An example is the Privy Council decision in Attorney General of the Cayman Islands v Wahr-Hansen,[54] where the Council held that gifts to "organisations or institutions operating for the public good" and acting "for the good or for the benefit of mankind" failed, because the definition given was not exclusively charitable.[55]. How are you to approach the construction of such statutes? Section 1(1) of the Act, however, preserves the need to provide a "public benefit". Essays, case summaries, problem questions and dissertations here are relevant to law students from the United Kingdom and Great Britain, as well as students wishing to learn more about the UK legal system from overseas. Express trusts dedicated to charitable goals in English law, Trusts of Land and Appointment of Trustees Act 1996, Creation of express trusts in English law, IRC v City of Glasgow Police Athletic Association, Attorney General of the Cayman Islands v Wahr-Hansen, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charitable_trusts_in_English_law&oldid=1120410354, Short description is different from Wikidata, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0. to increase public trust and confidence in charities; to promote the understanding of the public benefit requirement; to increase the compliance of trustees with their legal obligations; to promote the effective use of charitable resources; to make charities more accountable to the donors, beneficiaries and the public. The exempt purposes set forth in Internal Revenue Code section 501(c)(3) are charitable, religious, educational, scientific, literary, testing for public safety, fostering national or international amateur sports competition, and the prevention of cruelty to children or animals. make a difference between campaigning and political activity. Subsequent failure cases are designed to have the charity's funds applied to more effective purposes, and as such money already donated to the charity cannot be returned to the next of kin of the original money; in Re Wright,[75] it was said that "once money has been effectually dedicated to charity the testator's next of kin or residuary legatees are for ever excluded". It has been argued that there has been a weakening in the courts attitude to purportedly charitable trusts recently. 103. Registered office: Creative Tower, Fujairah, PO Box 4422, UAE. [16], The gift that creates the charitable trust, whatever the definition of poverty accepted by the courts, must be for the poor and nobody else. As mentioned, charitable trustees have significantly more freedom to act than normal trustees, but the 1993 Act has put restrictions on who may be a charitable trustee. Section 72 excludes people convicted of a crime involving dishonesty, bankrupts, people previously removed from charity trusteeship, and people struck off as directors of companies. The Commission is also authorised to appoint new trustees to replace removed ones, or even to increase the number of trustees. Except as provided by the Secretary, a defined contribution plan which is subject to the funding standards of section 412 shall be treated in the same manner as a stock bonus or profit-sharing plan for purposes of this subparagraph . Industrial Development Consultants v Cooley; IRC v Baddeley; IRC v Bernstein; IRC v Broadway Cottages Trust; IRC v McMullen (J) Jaffa v The Taylor Gallery; Jaggard v Sawyer, James, Re; James v Thomas; JD Wetherspoon plc v Van de . It has often been assumed that the notion of altruism indicative in the ordinary use of the term 'charity' penetrates the rationale for equity's enforcement of charitable trusts for the relief of the poor. Also at the same time cases such as Baldry v Feintuck (1972), AG v Ross (1986) have held that bodies that are considered to be charitable in educational circle will be precluded from engaging in political activities or supporting political causes. Political purposes are not considered to be a valid purpose and cannot exist. Cases such as Re Bushnall (1975), McGovern v AG (1981) and Southwood v AG (1998) have established that a trust or organisation whose purposes are ostensibly educational will not be accorded chartable status where these purposes are meant to further some political agenda, ideology or goal. That gifts to be charitable were traditionally classified into four categories known as Pemsel categories, namely: the relief of poverty, the advancement of education, the advancement of religion, and other purposes beneficial to the community: whereas there is a presumption that the first three categories are for the public benefit, such Although wide, this excludes things that the courts feel are harmful; in Re Shaw,[21] Harman J excluded schools for pickpockets or prostitutes. Two approaches towards the validity of charitable purpose have arisen. The law is absolutely clear on this, however the inconsistencies have occurred in the application of the law. IRC v Baddeley (1955) -a trust which provided outlet for members . [57] The Census of 1861 recorded his occupation as a Commercial Clerk, at Manchester Shipping House. Biography. The regulation, the tax treatment, and the . In particular, according to the Charities Act 1993 (section 37): 'charity trustees' means the person having the general control and management of the charity 'trusts' in relation to a charity means the provisions establishing it as a charity and regulating its purposes and administration, whether those provisions take effect as a trust or not, and in relation to other institutions has a corresponding meaning.[7]. b. Lord MacNaghten, in IRC v Pemsel (see above, p 599), classified the charitable purposes, as stated in the preamble to the Charitable Uses Act 1601, as follows: (a) the relief of poverty; (b) the advancement of education; (c) the advancement of religion; (d) other purposes beneficial to the community. We are not, I think, without a guide. Max-Josef Pemsel (15 January 1897 - 30 June 1985) was a Generalleutnant in the German Army during Second World War. Thus you get what Lord Hardwicke calls consistent, sensible construction.Lord Macnaghten discussed the development of the law of charity, saying of the 1601 Statute: The object of that statute was merely to provide new machinery for the reformation of abuses in regard to charities. For a charity to exist it must fall into the list of the purpose s2(2) Charities Act 2006 and it must satisfy the public benefit test. [40] This can apply even when the class "fluctuates", such as in Re Christchurch Inclosure Act,[41] where a gift was for the benefit of the inhabitants of a group of cottages, whoever those inhabitants might be. Commissioners for Special Purposes of the Income Tax v Pemsel [1891]: Relief of poverty. There are some charitable purposes under which an organisation can gain charitable status for purposes such as the promotion of human rights. Key point A trust cannot qualify as a charity within the fourth class if beneficiaries are a class not only confined to an area but also within it according to a particular creed Facts National Anti-Vivisection Society v Inland Revenue Commissioners, 40. Pemsel was born in the West Indies, in Jamaica in 1833. When deciding if a gift has failed, there is a distinction made between gifts to unincorporated bodies and incorporated bodies, as laid down in Re Vernon's Will Trust. Encouraging and facilitating the better administration of charities. These acceptable beneficiaries are to be read individually; there is no requirement to aid the aged and impotent as well as the poor, and one can even exclude the poor, such as in Re Resch's Will Trusts,[36] which dealt with a hospital that charged fees. Royal Choir Society v IRC [1943] A trust for the promotion and practice of a choir was upheld as charitable. [74], Failures that lead to an application for cy-pres are of two sorts; subsequent failure, where the trust, constituted properly, failed after a period of action, and initial failure, where the trust fails at creation. (IRC v Baddeley) Know the position of the Charities Commission: o Guidance 2008 o Guidance 2013 o Decisions of importance . Charities for the purpose of creating animal sanctuaries usually pass the public benefit test despite this, because they do not completely exclude the public and often have educational value.
Nursing Care Plan For Venous Stasis Ulcer, List Of Black England Rugby Players, Why Did The Mongol Empire Grow So Quickly, Moody High School Football Coach, What Does The Creature Demand Of Victor?, Articles I